Science
SPM · 71 topics available
Form 4
Chapter 1 · Laboratory Safety
Personal Protective Equipment
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is worn in the school laboratory to protect the body from chemical, biological and physical hazards during experiments.
OpenDisposal of Waste
Laboratory waste must be sorted and disposed of correctly to protect people, apparatus and the environment from harm.
OpenFire Extinguishers
A fire extinguisher is a portable device that puts out small fires by removing heat, fuel or oxygen; the right type must match the class of fire.
OpenChapter 2 · Emergency Aid
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency technique of chest compressions and rescue breaths that keeps blood and oxygen moving when a person's heart and breathing stop.
OpenHeimlich Maneuver
The Heimlich maneuver is a first-aid technique of abdominal thrusts used to force out an object blocking the airway of a choking person.
OpenChapter 3 · Measuring Body Health Parameters
Body Temperature
Body temperature is a health parameter that shows how well the body regulates its internal heat; a healthy human core temperature is about 37 degrees Celsius.
OpenPulse Rate
Pulse rate is the number of times an artery expands each minute as the heart beats, and it is a useful indicator of heart activity and fitness.
OpenBlood Pressure
Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the artery walls, measured as systolic over diastolic pressure in millimetres of mercury.
OpenBody Mass Index (BMI)
Body Mass Index (BMI) is a health parameter that compares body mass to height, calculated as mass in kilograms divided by height in metres squared.
OpenChapter 4 · Green Technology for Sustainability
Environmental Sustainability
How green technology helps us meet today's needs without destroying the resources that future generations will need.
OpenEnergy Sector
How the energy sector applies green technology by shifting to renewable sources and using energy more efficiently.
OpenWaste and Wastewater Management Sector
How green technology manages solid waste and treats wastewater so that land and water stay clean.
OpenAgriculture and Forestry Sector
How green technology helps farms and forests produce food and timber without exhausting the soil, water and biodiversity.
OpenTransportation Sector
How green technology reduces the pollution and greenhouse gases produced when people and goods move around.
OpenGreen Technology and Life
How green technology fits into daily life at home, in buildings and in the choices we make as consumers.
OpenChapter 5 · Genetics
Genetics
An introduction to genetics: how genes, DNA, chromosomes and alleles carry inherited information from parents to offspring.
OpenInheritance
How genes pass from parents to offspring: dominant and recessive alleles, genotype and phenotype, Mendel's work and the Punnett square.
OpenMutation
Mutation as a sudden change in DNA: gene versus chromosome mutations, mutagens, and why some mutations are harmful while others are beneficial.
OpenGenetic Engineering Technology
Genetic engineering: transferring genes to create GMOs, the role of restriction enzymes and plasmids, and applications in medicine, agriculture and industry.
OpenVariation
Variation among individuals of a species: continuous versus discontinuous variation, their causes, and why variation matters for survival.
OpenChapter 6 · Support, Movement and Growth
Support, Movement and Growth in Animals
How animals support their bodies and move: hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons and endoskeletons, antagonistic muscles, and the meaning of growth.
OpenHuman Movement and Growth
The human skeleton, joints and antagonistic muscles at the elbow, and how human growth is controlled by hormones and nutrition.
OpenSupport, Growth and Stability in Plants
How plants stay upright and stable: turgor pressure, xylem and wood, root systems for anchorage, and growth at the meristems.
OpenChapter 7 · Body Coordination
Human Endocrine System
How glands release hormones into the blood to coordinate and control body activities such as growth and blood sugar.
OpenDisruption to Body Coordination
What happens when hormones are out of balance or when drugs and alcohol interfere with the nervous system.
OpenHealthy Mind
Why mental health matters and the everyday habits that keep the mind calm, balanced and well.
OpenChapter 8 · Elements and Substances
Matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space, and it exists as solids, liquids and gases whose behaviour is explained by the movement of tiny particles.
OpenElements and Substances
Pure substances are either elements or compounds, while mixtures are formed by physically combining substances that keep their own properties.
OpenIsotope
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, giving them different masses but identical chemical properties.
OpenChapter 9 · Industrial Chemistry
Alloy
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with other elements, made to be harder, stronger and more resistant to corrosion than the pure metal.
OpenGlass and Ceramic
Glass is made from silica while ceramics are made from clay hardened by firing; both are hard, brittle materials that act as good insulators.
OpenPolymer
A polymer is a large molecule built from many repeating monomer units, and polymers can be natural, like rubber, or synthetic, like plastics.
OpenChapter 10 · Chemistry in Medicine and Health
Chemicals in Industry and Health
Industry processes chemicals on a large scale for use in medicine, food, hygiene and farming; used correctly they benefit health, but the wrong amount or careless handling can cause harm.
OpenTraditional Medicine, Modern Medicine and Complementary Medicine
Traditional medicine is inherited natural knowledge, modern medicine is developed and tested by science, and complementary medicine is used alongside modern treatment to support health.
OpenFree Radicals
A free radical is a highly reactive atom or molecule with an unpaired electron; it steals electrons from healthy molecules, causing oxidative stress that damages cells and DNA.
OpenAntioxidant Substances
An antioxidant is a substance that protects cells by donating an electron to neutralise free radicals; good sources include vitamin C, vitamin E and beta-carotene from fruits and vegetables.
OpenHealth Products
Health products such as supplements, traditional tonics and cosmetics support health but do not cure disease; in Malaysia they must be registered with NPRA and carry a MAL number.
OpenChapter 11 · Force and Motion
Linear Motion Graphs
Displacement-time and velocity-time graphs describe linear motion: on an s-t graph the gradient is velocity, while on a v-t graph the gradient is acceleration and the area is displacement.
OpenGravitational Acceleration and Free Fall
Gravitational acceleration g is about 9.81 m/s2 near Earth, and in free fall an object moves under gravity alone, so in a vacuum all objects fall at the same rate.
OpenMass and Inertia
Mass is the quantity of matter in an object and stays constant everywhere, while inertia is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of motion, growing larger with mass.
OpenChapter 12 · Nuclear Energy
The Use of Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is the large energy stored in the atomic nucleus; a small mass converts to great energy (E = mc²) and is used to generate electricity and in medicine, agriculture and industry.
OpenThe Production of Nuclear Energy
Nuclear fission splits a heavy uranium-235 nucleus with a neutron into lighter nuclei plus 2–3 neutrons and energy; the extra neutrons sustain a controlled chain reaction that produces heat.
OpenImpact of Using Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy gives high, reliable, low-carbon power, but its use brings radioactive waste, high cost and the risk of serious accidents such as Chernobyl and Fukushima.
OpenNuclear Energy in Malaysia
Malaysia has no nuclear power station and relies on gas, coal and hydro; it does use nuclear technology in medicine, agriculture, industry and research, regulated by the AELB and the Malaysian Nuclear Agency.
OpenForm 5
Chapter 1 · Microorganisms
World of Microorganisms
Microorganisms are tiny living things — bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa — that are found everywhere and can only be seen through a microscope.
OpenUseful Microorganisms
Many microorganisms are useful to humans, working in the production of food, medicines, fertilisers and clean energy.
OpenPrevention and Treatment of Diseases Caused by Microorganisms
Diseases caused by microorganisms can be prevented with vaccines and good hygiene, and bacterial infections treated with antibiotics.
OpenChapter 2 · Nutrition and Food Technology
Balanced Diet and Calorific Value
A balanced diet supplies all seven classes of food in the right amounts, while the calorific value of a food tells us how much energy it releases.
OpenNutrient Requirements in Plants
Plants need macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in large amounts, and micronutrients in tiny amounts, for healthy growth.
OpenNitrogen Cycle
The nitrogen cycle is the natural process, driven largely by bacteria, that converts nitrogen between the air, the soil and living things.
OpenFood Production Technology
Food production technology uses modern methods such as hydroponics, tissue culture, GM crops and aquaculture to produce more and better food.
OpenFood Processing Technology
Food processing technology preserves food by removing the warmth, moisture or air that microorganisms need to grow.
OpenHealth Foods and Health Supplements
Health foods are natural foods with extra benefits, while health supplements are concentrated nutrients taken to add to — not replace — a balanced diet.
OpenChapter 3 · Environmental Sustainability
Product Life Cycle
A product life cycle follows a product from raw-material extraction through manufacturing, distribution and use to disposal; studying it, and applying the 3R, helps reduce its environmental impact.
OpenEnvironmental Pollution
Environmental pollution is the release of harmful pollutants into air, water or land; it causes problems such as acid rain, global warming and haze, and can be controlled by treating waste and using cleaner energy.
OpenPreservation and Conservation of the Environment
Preservation keeps nature in its untouched state while conservation uses natural resources wisely and sustainably; methods include national parks, reforestation, laws and the 3R, all aiming for sustainability.
OpenChapter 4 · Rate of Reaction
Introduction to Rate of Reaction
The rate of reaction measures how fast a chemical change happens, found from the change in a reactant or product per unit time.
OpenFactors Affecting Rate of Reaction
Concentration, temperature, surface area and catalysts all change how fast a reaction goes, explained by collision theory.
OpenApplications of the Concept of Rate of Reaction
Understanding rate of reaction lets us slow unwanted reactions, such as food spoilage, and speed up useful ones in cooking and industry.
OpenChapter 5 · Carbon Compounds
Introduction of Carbon Compound
Carbon compounds are compounds containing carbon; because carbon can form four bonds and chain with itself, it produces millions of different substances found in living things and fuels.
OpenHydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons contain only carbon and hydrogen; alkanes (CₙH₂ₙ₊₂) are saturated with single bonds while alkenes (CₙH₂ₙ) are unsaturated with a double bond, and each family forms a homologous series.
OpenAlcohol
Alcohols contain the hydroxyl group –OH; ethanol (C₂H₅OH) is made when yeast ferments sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide, and it is used as a fuel, solvent and antiseptic.
OpenFats
Fats are esters of glycerol and fatty acids; saturated fats have no C=C double bonds and are solid animal fats, while unsaturated fats have double bonds and are liquid vegetable oils.
OpenPalm Oil
Palm oil is a vegetable oil pressed from the fruit of the oil palm; Malaysia is a leading producer, and the oil is used for food, soap, cosmetics and biodiesel and is rich in vitamin E.
OpenChapter 6 · Electrochemistry
Chapter 7 · Light and Optics
Formation of Images by Lenses
Convex lenses converge light and can form real or virtual images, while concave lenses always form virtual, upright, diminished images.
OpenOptical Instruments
Optical instruments such as the microscope and telescope use two convex lenses to magnify small nearby objects or distant ones.
OpenChapter 8 · Pressure in Fluids
Chapter 9 · Space Technology
Satellite
Satellites orbit larger bodies under gravity; artificial satellites in geostationary or low Earth orbit serve communication, weather and observation.
OpenGlobal Positioning System (GPS)
GPS uses a network of satellites and the travel time of their signals to work out a user's exact position on Earth.
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